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NARRATOR:
They built the largest,
most complex machine in history,
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00:00:07,541 --> 00:00:11,310
to probe the deepest mysteries
of the early universe,
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00:00:11,345 --> 00:00:16,348
as it was
at the beginning of time.
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MAN:
The Large Hadron Collider is
allowing us to see right back
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00:00:20,554 --> 00:00:24,623
to ten to the minus 12 seconds
after the Big Bang.
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NARRATOR:
Within two massive detectors,
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00:00:28,996 --> 00:00:32,297
in conditions harsher
even than outer space,
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00:00:32,333 --> 00:00:35,901
tiny particles smash together
at nearly the speed of light...
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00:00:38,472 --> 00:00:40,839
unleashing incredible energy.
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MAN:
Trying to figure out
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what happens in the collision of
two protons at very high energy
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is like analyzing what happens
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in the high-speed collision
of two garbage trucks.
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NARRATOR:
Within that spray of debris,
physicists search
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00:00:56,190 --> 00:01:01,160
for a tiny bundle of energy,
a subatomic particle...
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proof of an invisible energy
field that fills all of space.
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It just may be
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the most important feature
of our universe.
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Without it...
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There are no atoms,
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there's no chemistry,
there's no life.
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NARRATOR:
50 years of effort,
$10 billion,
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and thousands of researchers
around the world.
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For them, the stakes have
never been higher.
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MAN:
It's practically
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my whole professional life
that's led to this point.
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NARRATOR:
It's the moment of truth
when science flips the switch
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on the Big Bang Machine.
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MAN:
One, zero...
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NARRATOR:
Right now, on NOVA.
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Major funding for NOVA
is provided by the following:
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00:02:04,892 --> 00:02:08,794
Supporting NOVA and promoting
public understanding of science.
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00:02:11,832 --> 00:02:15,334
And by the Corporation
for Public Broadcasting.
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00:02:17,304 --> 00:02:20,739
And by contributions
to your PBS station from:
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00:02:26,413 --> 00:02:29,615
Additional funding is provided
by Millicent Bell through:
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00:02:36,056 --> 00:02:38,323
One of the world's
most-wanted fugitives
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has finally been captured.
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Done!
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NARRATOR:
The announcement came
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at the end of a high-speed,
high-stakes chase.
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A mystery.
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300 people were hot
on the trail.
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Decades worth of work.
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NARRATOR:
It was a truly
international effort
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that drew to its dramatic
conclusion here.
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MAN:
It's a historic milestone today.
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NARRATOR:
On the border of France
and Switzerland,
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300 feet below ground.
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But this wasn't a search
for some outlaw
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or criminal mastermind.
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00:03:12,293 --> 00:03:15,827
It was a hunt for something
far more elusive...
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An unstable bundle of energy
far smaller than an atom
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00:03:28,642 --> 00:03:31,310
that winks out of existence
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in a trillion trillionth
of a second.
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It's evidence of a force
that fills all of space,
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00:03:40,654 --> 00:03:43,455
completely invisible,
and yet without it,
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00:03:43,490 --> 00:03:49,761
life, earth, the universe
we know could not exist.
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00:03:52,967 --> 00:03:57,269
Finding this elusive particle
marks the end of a quest
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00:03:57,304 --> 00:04:01,373
that required constructing the
largest, most complex machine
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00:04:01,408 --> 00:04:02,975
the world has ever seen.
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00:04:04,478 --> 00:04:07,446
A quest that consumed nearly
half a century,
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billions of dollars,
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00:04:10,584 --> 00:04:14,686
and asked thousands of
scientists across the globe
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to invest years,
even decades of their careers
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with no guarantee of success.
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I got a job to do this in 1993.
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00:04:23,998 --> 00:04:25,964
It's eleventh year now.
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About ten years, me.
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00:04:27,601 --> 00:04:29,001
Yeah, and about
five years for me.
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20 years, something like that.
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Since 1994, I guess.
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00:04:32,906 --> 00:04:36,275
It's practically my whole
professional life
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that's led to this point.
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NARRATOR:
The discovery has been hailed
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00:04:41,315 --> 00:04:45,917
as one of the greatest
scientific victories of all time
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and has already won
the Nobel Prize.
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It's an enormous triumph.
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This was my generation's
Manhattan Project,
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and I wanted to be on the inside
looking out.
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It's been extremely exciting.
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NARRATOR:
But what is
this mysterious quarry?
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What does it actually do?
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And why was finding it
so important?
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That story begins at the
very beginning of time,
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when the universe came into
being in a massive explosion
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called the Big Bang.
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So here we have the Big Bang.
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NARRATOR:
Billions of years ago.
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Deserves a little bit
of color, I think.
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And then the timeline
of the universe.
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This is where we are.
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This now the age
of the universe,
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like 13.7 billion years
after the Big Bang.
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And so working backwards,
we had the dinosaurs.
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So here's a dinosaur.
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Then life itself, first DNA was
about four billion years ago.
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NARRATOR:
Before DNA, there was the earth.
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Before that, the first stars.
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Before them, just atoms.
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While atoms were once thought
to consist
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of just three basic particles--
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neutrons, protons
and electrons--
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physicists now know
some of these are made
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of even more fundamental stuff--
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the basic building blocks
of our universe.
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JON BUTTERWORTH:
The big question then is
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where did those building blocks
come from?
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The answer to all that lies
in the first second.
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NARRATOR:
In the first instant
of existence,
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when the universe was
unimaginably hot,
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the cosmos was filled with
identical bundles of energy
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moving at the speed of light,
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all indistinguishable
from one another.
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But then something changed.
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Distinct types
of particles emerged
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with different properties,
like electric charge...
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and mass, what we
experience as weight.
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Now we live in a universe
full of tangible stuff.
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And while that monumental shift
from nothing to something
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must have happened
almost immediately,
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how it happened
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was one of the biggest
unanswered questions in physics.
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The mysteries of existence lie
within this second.
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Certainly we understand
the science,
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we understand the physics.
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Work backwards into this second,
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but at some point we just
run out of knowledge.
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And the Large Hadron Collider
is allowing us to see
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right back to ten to the minus
12 seconds after the Big Bang.
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00:08:01,515 --> 00:08:04,950
Beyond that, here be dragons
or dinosaurs.
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00:08:04,985 --> 00:08:05,984
(laughs)
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NARRATOR:
The Large Hadron Collider is
a massive particle accelerator,
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00:08:14,761 --> 00:08:17,796
the largest machine
in the world,
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00:08:17,831 --> 00:08:21,132
designed to simulate
the universe as it was
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a trillionth of a second
after the Big Bang.
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To solve the mystery of mass,
it smashes protons together
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at energy so high...
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that it is capable of testing
an idea first suggested in 1964
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00:08:38,552 --> 00:08:41,486
by several scientists
around the world,
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00:08:41,522 --> 00:08:46,224
including a young theoretical
physicist named Peter Higgs.
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00:08:46,260 --> 00:08:50,295
His mathematics suggestethat
right after the Big Bang,
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an invisible energy field was
somehow switched on
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and now fills
the entire universe.
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00:09:00,741 --> 00:09:04,242
Just the way that a magnetic
field affects some materials
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00:09:04,278 --> 00:09:08,680
but not others, he suggested
that this new field
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00:09:08,715 --> 00:09:12,551
selectively affects
some fundamental particles,
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00:09:12,586 --> 00:09:15,420
causing some of them
to take on mass.
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Very massive particles
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00:09:19,293 --> 00:09:22,827
like the quarks that make up
protons and neutrons
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00:09:22,863 --> 00:09:25,297
interact strongly
with this field.
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00:09:25,332 --> 00:09:29,801
Electrons, which form the
outer shells of atoms,
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00:09:29,836 --> 00:09:34,739
interact less strongly
and are very lightweight.
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00:09:34,775 --> 00:09:38,910
And still others, like photons,
particles of light,
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00:09:38,946 --> 00:09:44,616
have no mass, because they don't
interact with the field at all.
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The theory implied that a
universe without a Higgs field
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00:09:51,558 --> 00:09:55,560
might not be
a very friendly place.
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And that got people's attention.
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If there were no Higgs
mechanism,
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00:09:59,866 --> 00:10:02,400
elementary particles
wouldn't have mass.
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00:10:02,436 --> 00:10:04,569
If electrons didn't have mass,
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00:10:04,605 --> 00:10:06,905
that means they would move
at the speed of light.
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00:10:06,940 --> 00:10:09,174
And if electrons moved
at the speed of light,
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00:10:09,209 --> 00:10:12,077
electrons do not settle down
into atoms.
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00:10:12,112 --> 00:10:14,012
And if electrons do not settle
down into atoms,
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there e no atoms,
there are no molecules,
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there's no chemistry,
there's no life.
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Nothing.
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00:10:19,119 --> 00:10:20,552
It would look nothing
like what we see today.
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We wouldn't be here,
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00:10:21,888 --> 00:10:24,956
and there would be no physicists
to ask these questions.
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NARRATOR:
When Higgs submitted his theory
to a journal,
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00:10:32,766 --> 00:10:36,401
the editors based at CERN
rejected it.
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HIGGS:
My reaction was
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00:10:38,005 --> 00:10:42,374
that they clearly hadn't
understood what I was saying.
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NARRATOR:
Undeterred, he revised
the paper,
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00:10:45,846 --> 00:10:48,880
adding a paragraph saying,
in effect,
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00:10:48,915 --> 00:10:52,384
that if the field exists,
we should find evidence of it
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00:10:52,419 --> 00:10:57,322
in the form of a particle that
would turn up in an accelerator.
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00:10:58,792 --> 00:11:02,594
In other words, if you smash
particles together
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00:11:02,629 --> 00:11:09,134
energetically, you'll make
a ripple in the field.
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00:11:09,169 --> 00:11:12,303
And if you apply enough energy,
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00:11:12,339 --> 00:11:19,210
you just might be able to detect
it in the form of a particle.
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00:11:21,515 --> 00:11:23,848
The second time around,
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00:11:23,884 --> 00:11:25,884
an American journal published
the paper
185
00:11:25,919 --> 00:11:28,887
and Peter Higgs got
a lot of credit.
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00:11:28,922 --> 00:11:32,824
But in reality, the idea was
cooked up independently
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00:11:32,859 --> 00:11:35,026
by a bunch of scientists:
188
00:11:35,062 --> 00:11:39,831
Philip Anderson, Robert Brout,
François Englert,
189
00:11:39,866 --> 00:11:42,834
Gerry Guralnik, Carl R. Hagen,
190
00:11:42,869 --> 00:11:47,105
Peter Higgs, Tom Kibble,
Gerard 't Hooft.
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00:11:47,140 --> 00:11:51,443
Some have suggested that it
really should be called this.
192
00:11:51,478 --> 00:11:54,379
But since that's impossible
to pronounce,
193
00:11:54,414 --> 00:11:58,216
it's simply called
the Higgs field.
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00:12:00,687 --> 00:12:02,387
Gradually, the theory
gained support,
195
00:12:02,422 --> 00:12:05,457
but without the evidence
of a particle,
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00:12:05,492 --> 00:12:09,794
now called the Higgs boson,
it remained unproven.
197
00:12:11,298 --> 00:12:13,565
To be honest, we weren't sure
that the Higgs existed.
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00:12:13,600 --> 00:12:16,835
Mr. Higgs and his collaborators
were saying that there was
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00:12:16,870 --> 00:12:19,370
an invisible energy field
everywhere in the universe.
200
00:12:19,406 --> 00:12:21,706
So the "invisible"
sounds a little odd,
201
00:12:21,742 --> 00:12:23,708
and the "everywhere in
the universe" also sounds
202
00:12:23,744 --> 00:12:26,745
kind of far-fetched.
203
00:12:26,780 --> 00:12:28,680
So that was a lot
for people to swallow.
204
00:12:28,715 --> 00:12:29,814
There were many people
who thought
205
00:12:29,850 --> 00:12:31,049
this can't be the answer.
206
00:12:31,084 --> 00:12:34,819
I've heard people describe it
as a trick,
207
00:12:34,855 --> 00:12:38,123
a mathematical trick to make
the equations work out.
208
00:12:39,860 --> 00:12:41,526
NARRATOR:
Finding something
that's all around us
209
00:12:41,561 --> 00:12:43,728
is surprisingly tricky.
210
00:12:43,764 --> 00:12:48,600
Because the Higgs boson
doesn't actually exist.
211
00:12:48,635 --> 00:12:52,504
At least not in any form
that we can easily detect.
212
00:12:52,539 --> 00:12:57,709
So in 1998, scientists from
around the world came together
213
00:12:57,744 --> 00:13:01,746
at CERN, the Center for European
Nuclear Research,
214
00:13:01,782 --> 00:13:05,683
located on the border of France
and Switzerland,
215
00:13:05,719 --> 00:13:08,853
to build a particle accelerator
that would have enough power
216
00:13:08,889 --> 00:13:15,093
to create such a profound
disturbance in the Higgs field
217
00:13:15,128 --> 00:13:18,663
that the predicted Higgs bosons
would pop into existence
218
00:13:18,698 --> 00:13:20,632
and present themselves.
219
00:13:23,770 --> 00:13:26,905
But easier said than done.
220
00:13:31,144 --> 00:13:34,012
FABIOLA GIANOTTI:
In order to find this particle,
221
00:13:34,047 --> 00:13:40,618
we had to build this complex,
cutting-edge accelerator.
222
00:13:40,654 --> 00:13:42,687
The work is the work of
thousands of people.
223
00:13:45,225 --> 00:13:46,925
20 years of effort went
into building these detectors.
224
00:13:46,960 --> 00:13:50,395
GIANOTTI:
20 years of efforts of
the international community.
225
00:13:50,430 --> 00:13:53,832
NARRATOR:
From dozens of nations,
226
00:13:53,867 --> 00:13:57,802
with the U.S. contributing
$500 million.
227
00:14:00,907 --> 00:14:05,543
It took $10 billion
and ten years
228
00:14:05,579 --> 00:14:09,914
to complete
the Large Hadron Collider,
229
00:14:09,950 --> 00:14:13,651
a massive masterpiece
of engineering,
230
00:14:13,687 --> 00:14:17,655
to find one of the tiniest
pieces of the cosmos.
231
00:14:18,825 --> 00:14:21,359
It's a very cool
and expensive eye
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00:14:21,394 --> 00:14:24,529
that can look at very,
very small distances
233
00:14:24,564 --> 00:14:26,831
like about a billionth
of a billionth of a meter.
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00:14:28,768 --> 00:14:30,969
LYN EVANS:
We designed this machine
235
00:14:31,004 --> 00:14:33,872
so that wherever the Higgs boson
would be,
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00:14:33,907 --> 00:14:35,006
we would be able to find it.
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00:14:37,077 --> 00:14:38,910
NARRATOR:
Flushing the Higgs out of hiding
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00:14:38,945 --> 00:14:43,982
begins in a modest little red
bottle full of hydrogen atoms,
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00:14:44,017 --> 00:14:46,918
the smallest and most abundant
element in the universe.
240
00:14:46,953 --> 00:14:50,288
All the protons that we use
at CERN are taken
241
00:14:50,323 --> 00:14:53,091
from a bottle that size.
242
00:14:53,126 --> 00:14:58,429
They start their journey here
and they continue
243
00:14:58,465 --> 00:15:02,467
down this orange line, and that
is the linear accelerator.
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00:15:02,502 --> 00:15:06,304
NARRATOR:
Trillions of hydrogen atoms
stripped of their electrons
245
00:15:06,339 --> 00:15:07,972
are injected into the collider.
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00:15:11,378 --> 00:15:13,177
STORR:
Every 1.2 seconds...
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00:15:16,116 --> 00:15:20,385
ten to the power 14 protons
are being accelerated
248
00:15:20,420 --> 00:15:22,954
down that line.
249
00:15:22,989 --> 00:15:27,025
NARRATOR:
The protons accelerate around
larger and larger loops
250
00:15:27,060 --> 00:15:30,261
until they are finally directed
into the main ring.
251
00:15:33,199 --> 00:15:37,035
To keep the increasingly
energetic particles confined,
252
00:15:37,070 --> 00:15:41,339
the LHC relies on immensely
powerful magnetic fields
253
00:15:41,374 --> 00:15:47,145
generated by 1,232 primary
superconducting magnets,
254
00:15:47,180 --> 00:15:51,449
cooled to just a few degrees
above absolute zero
255
00:15:51,484 --> 00:15:55,253
by 120 tons of liquid helium.
256
00:15:55,288 --> 00:15:58,790
After about 20 minutes
of acceleration,
257
00:15:58,825 --> 00:16:03,361
each bunch of protons is moving
at nearly the speed of light,
258
00:16:03,396 --> 00:16:07,098
with as much energy
as an onrushing locomotive.
259
00:16:09,235 --> 00:16:12,503
Finally the protons are
carefully steered
260
00:16:12,539 --> 00:16:14,272
into violent head-on
collisions...
261
00:16:18,745 --> 00:16:21,746
converting the huge energy
into showers of exotic,
262
00:16:21,781 --> 00:16:25,717
energetic particles, scattering
in all directions,
263
00:16:25,752 --> 00:16:28,786
many decaying into showers
of even more particles,
264
00:16:28,822 --> 00:16:34,625
setting the stage for the hard
work of detecting the Higgs.
265
00:16:34,661 --> 00:16:36,260
STEVEN WEINBERG:
Trying to figure out
what happens
266
00:16:36,296 --> 00:16:41,065
in the collision of two protons
at very high energy
267
00:16:41,101 --> 00:16:42,800
is like analyzing what happens
268
00:16:42,836 --> 00:16:46,170
in the high-speed collision
of two garbage trucks.
269
00:16:49,142 --> 00:16:51,743
Garbage is spread
all over everything,
270
00:16:51,778 --> 00:16:55,947
and most of it is garbage in the
sense that it's not interesting.
271
00:16:55,982 --> 00:16:58,616
It's old stuff
that we already knew about.
272
00:16:58,651 --> 00:17:01,486
And in all this garbage
that's spraying out
273
00:17:01,521 --> 00:17:03,454
in all directions
on the highway,
274
00:17:03,490 --> 00:17:07,058
you have to find
the golden needle,
275
00:17:07,093 --> 00:17:11,996
the rare artifact that you're
looking for, the Higgs boson,
276
00:17:12,032 --> 00:17:14,165
something entirely new.
277
00:17:16,202 --> 00:17:18,069
NARRATOR:
To the scientists at CERN,
278
00:17:18,104 --> 00:17:21,472
a collection of physicists
from all over the world,
279
00:17:21,508 --> 00:17:24,475
the stuff produced in these
powerful collisions
280
00:17:24,511 --> 00:17:28,379
is anything but garbage.
281
00:17:28,415 --> 00:17:32,483
Each particle has a
well-understood identity,
282
00:17:32,519 --> 00:17:34,585
described with great precision
283
00:17:34,621 --> 00:17:37,655
in one of the most accurate
theories ever devised
284
00:17:37,690 --> 00:17:42,026
to explain the workings
of the universe.
285
00:17:42,062 --> 00:17:45,163
It's called the Standard Model,
286
00:17:45,198 --> 00:17:48,433
and one of its key contributors
is Frank Wilczek.
287
00:17:48,468 --> 00:17:49,934
Hi, welcome.
288
00:17:49,969 --> 00:17:53,871
Come on in.
289
00:17:53,907 --> 00:17:55,807
A lot of what I do
is really just play.
290
00:17:55,842 --> 00:17:59,110
I mean, I play
with the equations and ideas.
291
00:18:01,314 --> 00:18:03,481
NARRATOR:
All that playing won Frank
a Nobel Prize
292
00:18:03,516 --> 00:18:05,817
for his contribution
to the Standard Model.
293
00:18:05,852 --> 00:18:08,820
Well, what have we got here?
294
00:18:08,855 --> 00:18:13,157
It looks like an instrument
of torture for the mind.
295
00:18:13,193 --> 00:18:16,260
NARRATOR:
The Standard Model is
essentially an understanding
296
00:18:16,296 --> 00:18:20,264
of how all the known pieces
of the universe fit together,
297
00:18:20,300 --> 00:18:23,267
except for the mechanism
of gravity,
298
00:18:23,303 --> 00:18:26,838
creating a mind-boggling
tapestry.
299
00:18:26,873 --> 00:18:29,507
WILCZEK:
This is going to be a hell
of a puzzle
300
00:18:29,542 --> 00:18:31,342
to figure out.
301
00:18:31,377 --> 00:18:34,145
All right, now,
a promising start.
302
00:18:37,851 --> 00:18:40,818
We think the Standard Model
contains all you need
303
00:18:40,854 --> 00:18:45,523
in principle to describe
how molecules behave,
304
00:18:45,558 --> 00:18:50,261
all of chemistry, how stars
work, all of astrophysics--
305
00:18:50,296 --> 00:18:54,699
not only how things behave,
but what can exist.
306
00:18:54,734 --> 00:18:56,467
These are the rules of the game.
307
00:19:01,407 --> 00:19:08,279
The ingredients of the Standard
Model are of three basic sorts.
308
00:19:08,314 --> 00:19:11,916
There's what you might
broadly call matter.
309
00:19:15,855 --> 00:19:18,422
That's sort of lumps of stuff
310
00:19:18,458 --> 00:19:19,924
that have a certain degree
of permanence.
311
00:19:19,959 --> 00:19:25,129
And these are,
on the one hand, quarks.
312
00:19:25,165 --> 00:19:28,065
They include the building blocks
of protons and neutrons
313
00:19:28,101 --> 00:19:31,402
and atomic nuclei.
314
00:19:31,437 --> 00:19:33,571
And leptons.
315
00:19:36,609 --> 00:19:39,410
Most prominent lepton
in everyday life
316
00:19:39,445 --> 00:19:41,179
is certainly the electron.
317
00:19:41,214 --> 00:19:46,984
So those are matter particles.
318
00:19:47,020 --> 00:19:51,756
On the other side, we have what
you might call force particles
319
00:19:51,791 --> 00:19:53,324
or force mediators.
320
00:19:53,359 --> 00:19:55,059
NARRATOR:
Called "bosons,"
321
00:19:55,094 --> 00:19:59,363
some of these particles are
more like lumps of energy.
322
00:19:59,399 --> 00:20:01,032
They transmit the forces
323
00:20:01,067 --> 00:20:04,101
that bring the matter
particles to life.
324
00:20:04,137 --> 00:20:06,170
They include the photon,
325
00:20:06,206 --> 00:20:09,073
which carries
the electromagnetic force;
326
00:20:09,108 --> 00:20:11,542
the gluons that carry
the strong force
327
00:20:11,578 --> 00:20:15,213
which holds protons
and neutrons together;
328
00:20:15,248 --> 00:20:19,150
and the W and Z bosons
that are responsible
329
00:20:19,185 --> 00:20:23,154
for the weak force
governing radioactivity.
330
00:20:23,189 --> 00:20:25,656
With just this small list
of ingredients,
331
00:20:25,692 --> 00:20:28,859
the Standard Model explains
the physical properties
332
00:20:28,895 --> 00:20:32,463
of the elementary building
blocks of nature.
333
00:20:32,498 --> 00:20:35,499
The Standard Model is just a
handful of particles and forces,
334
00:20:35,535 --> 00:20:38,069
and it explains every experiment
ever done
335
00:20:38,104 --> 00:20:40,805
by every human being
in the history of science.
336
00:20:40,840 --> 00:20:43,708
So it's quite impressive
in what it's managed to do.
337
00:20:43,743 --> 00:20:46,410
It explains how stars burn.
338
00:20:46,446 --> 00:20:49,080
It explains
how radioactivity occurs.
339
00:20:49,115 --> 00:20:50,881
It explains how chemistry works.
340
00:20:50,917 --> 00:20:52,250
It explains how light works.
341
00:20:52,285 --> 00:20:53,351
It's an amazing theory.
342
00:20:55,521 --> 00:20:58,623
NARRATOR:
The first particles were
discovered in experiments
343
00:20:58,658 --> 00:21:00,291
and became the foundation
for the Standard Model.
344
00:21:02,495 --> 00:21:05,263
But then the theorists took over
345
00:21:05,298 --> 00:21:08,065
and all the particles discovered
in the last 40 years
346
00:21:08,101 --> 00:21:10,468
were first predicted
by the mathematics
347
00:21:10,503 --> 00:21:13,738
of the Standard Model
and then found experimentally.
348
00:21:17,310 --> 00:21:21,012
The Higgs boson, a force
particle, was the last
349
00:21:21,047 --> 00:21:24,749
and most challenging piece
of the puzzle.
350
00:21:24,784 --> 00:21:27,952
That's why finding it was such
an obsession among theorists
351
00:21:27,987 --> 00:21:30,121
and experimentalists alike.
352
00:21:39,098 --> 00:21:43,701
In September 2008,
with much fanfare...
353
00:21:43,736 --> 00:21:46,504
(applause)
354
00:21:46,539 --> 00:21:49,006
...the giant accelerator
was switched on.
355
00:21:52,211 --> 00:21:55,513
The LHC was ready to go to work.
356
00:21:58,251 --> 00:22:03,487
It was an exciting time,
full of high expectations.
357
00:22:03,523 --> 00:22:05,489
Designing and building
this machine,
358
00:22:05,525 --> 00:22:07,892
it's just incredible to see it
come to life.
359
00:22:07,927 --> 00:22:12,229
NARRATOR:
But then, just nine days
after start-up...
360
00:22:12,265 --> 00:22:14,565
disaster struck.
361
00:22:16,736 --> 00:22:18,669
It was 11:00 in the morning,
362
00:22:18,705 --> 00:22:22,606
and I got a call to come over,
something looks serious.
363
00:22:22,642 --> 00:22:27,044
And when I got over there,
I had never seen such carnage.
364
00:22:27,080 --> 00:22:29,480
NARRATOR:
A short circuit burned a hole
365
00:22:29,515 --> 00:22:33,484
in a giant container of liquid
helium used to cool the magnets.
366
00:22:33,519 --> 00:22:38,389
Six tons of helium was released
into the tunnel
367
00:22:38,424 --> 00:22:42,460
and more than 50 of the giant
magnets were fried.
368
00:22:45,732 --> 00:22:51,535
The $10 billion LHC
was dead in the water.
369
00:22:53,306 --> 00:22:57,908
Undaunted, engineers worked
to repair the machine
370
00:22:57,944 --> 00:23:00,311
and physicists continued to
refine the computer programs
371
00:23:00,346 --> 00:23:03,514
that would analyze
the vast amount of data
372
00:23:03,549 --> 00:23:05,516
that the LHC would produce
373
00:23:05,551 --> 00:23:08,185
once it was running
at full power.
374
00:23:08,221 --> 00:23:11,922
WOMAN:
Three, two, one...
375
00:23:11,958 --> 00:23:13,624
(beeping)
376
00:23:13,659 --> 00:23:16,460
(applause)
377
00:23:16,496 --> 00:23:21,332
NARRATOR:
By late 2009, after 14 months of
repair work and reengineering,
378
00:23:21,367 --> 00:23:25,369
the LHC was more robust
than ever
379
00:23:25,405 --> 00:23:28,372
and finally ready to begin
the hunt in earnest.
380
00:23:31,244 --> 00:23:34,478
Now, protons are whizzing
both ways around the ring
381
00:23:34,514 --> 00:23:36,847
at nearly the speed of light.
382
00:23:39,652 --> 00:23:45,189
At the center of the two Higgs
detectors, the beams cross
383
00:23:45,224 --> 00:23:50,227
inside ATLAS, a massive machine
the size of a cathedral
384
00:23:50,263 --> 00:23:56,000
and also within its smaller
cousin, CMS.
385
00:23:56,035 --> 00:23:59,603
Even though the beams are
microscopically small,
386
00:23:59,639 --> 00:24:02,907
the vast majority of particles
contained in them
387
00:24:02,942 --> 00:24:06,243
whiz past each other
without incident.
388
00:24:06,279 --> 00:24:10,014
FRANKLIN:
When you collide 100 billion
protons and 100 billion protons,
389
00:24:10,049 --> 00:24:12,383
most of the protons are
just seeing each other
390
00:24:12,418 --> 00:24:14,318
and going, "Hello,"
and going on.
391
00:24:15,988 --> 00:24:18,989
NARRATOR:
But about 800 million times
every second,
392
00:24:19,025 --> 00:24:22,226
pairs of protons meet head-on.
393
00:24:22,261 --> 00:24:23,828
FRANKLIN:
What's called
a "hard collision."
394
00:24:23,863 --> 00:24:27,231
When the proton breaks up
so it's no longer a pron,
395
00:24:27,266 --> 00:24:29,333
that's an interesting collision.
396
00:24:29,368 --> 00:24:31,368
And that happens
only about 20 times
397
00:24:31,404 --> 00:24:33,737
out of all these billions
of protons crossing.
398
00:24:35,641 --> 00:24:37,475
NARRATOR:
In each of these powerful
collisions,
399
00:24:37,510 --> 00:24:40,911
dozens of new particles
flash into existence
400
00:24:40,947 --> 00:24:44,081
and spray outward, their unique
signatures tracked
401
00:24:44,116 --> 00:24:46,050
by the huge detectors,
402
00:24:46,085 --> 00:24:50,421
capturing the action
40 million times a second.
403
00:24:50,456 --> 00:24:55,526
Incredibly fast, but still not
able to spot the Higgs directly.
404
00:25:02,201 --> 00:25:05,369
CARROLL:
The Higgs is actually kind of
a difficult particle to find.
405
00:25:05,404 --> 00:25:06,837
It's kind of subtle
in how you look for it.
406
00:25:06,873 --> 00:25:09,807
As soon as you create it,
it decays very, very quickly.
407
00:25:09,842 --> 00:25:13,010
The lifetime of a Higgs
is about one zeptosecond,
408
00:25:13,045 --> 00:25:15,746
which is like
ten to the minus 21 seconds.
409
00:25:15,781 --> 00:25:17,515
So, in fact,
you'll never even see it
410
00:25:17,550 --> 00:25:19,116
in a particle accelerator.
411
00:25:19,151 --> 00:25:20,985
It doesn't move that far,
412
00:25:21,020 --> 00:25:22,720
enough for you to see any track
left behind.
413
00:25:25,892 --> 00:25:30,694
NARRATOR:
And so, the only way to detect
the Higgs would be by spotting
414
00:25:30,730 --> 00:25:32,496
the more familiar particles
415
00:25:32,532 --> 00:25:35,032
that the quickly vanishing Higgs
decays into.
416
00:25:39,639 --> 00:25:41,205
The math predicted
417
00:25:41,240 --> 00:25:44,742
about a dozen different possible
decay modes, as they're called.
418
00:25:47,780 --> 00:25:49,813
But the relative likelihood
of any of them
419
00:25:49,849 --> 00:25:51,815
depended on the mass
of the Higgs...
420
00:25:54,186 --> 00:25:57,021
which was a total mystery.
421
00:26:02,495 --> 00:26:06,564
It must have seemed like
a cosmic joke on the theorists.
422
00:26:06,599 --> 00:26:09,433
JOSEPH LYKKEN:
The irony, if you like, is that
423
00:26:09,468 --> 00:26:11,936
although the Higgs field that's
related to the Higgs boson
424
00:26:11,971 --> 00:26:13,571
gives other particles mass,
425
00:26:13,606 --> 00:26:16,173
the one property of the Higgs
boson that was not predicted
426
00:26:16,208 --> 00:26:17,841
by Professor Higgs
and his colleagues
427
00:26:17,877 --> 00:26:20,277
was the mass
of the Higgs boson itself.
428
00:26:20,313 --> 00:26:22,379
So its mass could have
been anything
429
00:26:22,415 --> 00:26:24,815
from very, very light by our
standards to very, very heavy.
430
00:26:28,654 --> 00:26:30,688
NARRATOR:
Since the Higgs could
theoretically decay
431
00:26:30,723 --> 00:26:32,990
in so many different ways,
432
00:26:33,025 --> 00:26:35,259
the Higgs hunters had
to be willing to sift
433
00:26:35,294 --> 00:26:38,028
through all
of the collision debris,
434
00:26:38,064 --> 00:26:39,897
looking for slight increases
435
00:26:39,932 --> 00:26:42,199
in the number
of detectable particles,
436
00:26:42,234 --> 00:26:44,568
with very specific
characteristics,
437
00:26:44,604 --> 00:26:47,738
into which the Higgs could
possibly decay.
438
00:26:49,542 --> 00:26:51,609
CARROLL:
So it's not like looking
for a needle in a haystack,
439
00:26:51,644 --> 00:26:54,244
when at least you know
that you found a needle.
440
00:26:54,280 --> 00:26:56,480
It's like looking for hay
in a haystack.
441
00:26:56,515 --> 00:26:58,716
You're looking for a little bit
more hay with certain properties
442
00:26:58,751 --> 00:26:59,883
than certain other properties.
443
00:27:01,554 --> 00:27:03,988
NARRATOR:
That daunting challenge meant
444
00:27:04,023 --> 00:27:06,590
building enormously
complicated detectors
445
00:27:06,626 --> 00:27:10,394
to track and count
every bit of debris
446
00:27:10,429 --> 00:27:13,130
coming out of those collisions.
447
00:27:13,165 --> 00:27:14,965
FRANKLIN:
And then we have to somehow,
448
00:27:15,001 --> 00:27:17,401
with all of the particles
that come out of this event,
449
00:27:17,436 --> 00:27:20,170
we have to reconstruct them and
find if there are new particles
450
00:27:20,206 --> 00:27:21,605
that are happening.
451
00:27:24,110 --> 00:27:26,744
NARRATOR:
The mathematics predicts that
the Higgs should often decay
452
00:27:26,779 --> 00:27:31,615
into particles that are also
maddeningly hard to detect--
453
00:27:31,651 --> 00:27:35,119
like quarks, the particles that
make up protons and neutrons
454
00:27:35,154 --> 00:27:38,188
in the nuclei of atoms.
455
00:27:38,224 --> 00:27:40,057
They looked in every
possible way they can look.
456
00:27:40,092 --> 00:27:42,226
In the end,
457
00:27:42,261 --> 00:27:44,762
they looked for the Higgs boson
decaying into photons.
458
00:27:44,797 --> 00:27:48,666
NARRATOR:
Out of every thousand
Higgs bosons created,
459
00:27:48,701 --> 00:27:52,503
a few should decay in a way that
produces a pair of photons--
460
00:27:52,538 --> 00:27:54,004
light particles
461
00:27:54,040 --> 00:27:58,509
which can be measured very
precisely in the detectors.
462
00:28:00,780 --> 00:28:05,616
By knowing the energy and angle
between pairs of photons,
463
00:28:05,651 --> 00:28:09,987
scientists can tell if they
were likely produced by a Higgs.
464
00:28:10,022 --> 00:28:14,158
And by looking for unexpectedly
high concentrations
465
00:28:14,193 --> 00:28:18,028
of certain photons
over billions of collisions,
466
00:28:18,064 --> 00:28:22,399
scientists hoped to zero in on
the Higgs and, as a consequence,
467
00:28:22,435 --> 00:28:25,569
pinpoint its exact mass--
468
00:28:25,604 --> 00:28:28,972
the one missing value
in the theory.
469
00:28:31,811 --> 00:28:34,478
It proved to be a statistical
sifting process
470
00:28:34,513 --> 00:28:37,014
of dizzying complexity.
471
00:28:37,049 --> 00:28:40,451
Luckily, they had a head start.
472
00:28:40,486 --> 00:28:43,687
Years of experiments in other
colliders had ruled out
473
00:28:43,723 --> 00:28:46,423
many possible masses
for the Higgs,
474
00:28:46,459 --> 00:28:51,795
measured in units called
gigaelectronvolts, or GEV.
475
00:28:51,831 --> 00:28:54,898
So on this line of what the mass
of the Higgs might be,
476
00:28:54,934 --> 00:28:58,635
we can draw on what previous
experiments have...
477
00:28:58,671 --> 00:29:00,637
have tried and where
they've been able
478
00:29:00,673 --> 00:29:02,806
to exclude it from being.
479
00:29:02,842 --> 00:29:07,177
NARRATOR:
A less powerful accelerator,
the LEP Collider at CERN,
480
00:29:07,213 --> 00:29:09,413
a predecessor of the LHC,
481
00:29:09,448 --> 00:29:12,616
had already ruled out the Higgs
being at the bottom end
482
00:29:12,651 --> 00:29:14,451
of potential masses.
483
00:29:14,487 --> 00:29:18,622
In fact they were able to say
that the mass of the Higgs
484
00:29:18,657 --> 00:29:25,596
is, with 95% confidence,
114 GEV or more.
485
00:29:25,631 --> 00:29:28,899
So after LEP, the next major
milestone in the...
486
00:29:28,934 --> 00:29:33,403
in the Higgs search was limits
set by another collider
487
00:29:33,439 --> 00:29:34,872
in the U.S., the Tevatron.
488
00:29:34,907 --> 00:29:38,175
The Tevatron was able to exclude
489
00:29:38,210 --> 00:29:43,547
a range here around
160 GEV here.
490
00:29:43,582 --> 00:29:49,052
NARRATOR:
In 2011, CERN moved that upper
boundary still lower.
491
00:29:49,088 --> 00:29:52,122
DAVISON:
The LHC has been able to rule
out a big region
492
00:29:52,158 --> 00:29:56,994
from 145, quite far up.
493
00:29:59,532 --> 00:30:01,598
NARRATOR:
But this last remaining
energy range
494
00:30:01,634 --> 00:30:04,468
was also the trickiest
to search.
495
00:30:04,503 --> 00:30:07,838
It's the area in which the
unique signature of the Higgs
496
00:30:07,873 --> 00:30:11,008
would be mostly deeply buried
under the background noise
497
00:30:11,043 --> 00:30:14,578
of other particles
created in the collider.
498
00:30:19,652 --> 00:30:21,852
MAN:
If I was to bet,
499
00:30:21,887 --> 00:30:23,987
I would probably
put it at 130 GEV.
500
00:30:24,023 --> 00:30:26,523
Probably somewhere around
120 GEV.
501
00:30:26,559 --> 00:30:29,393
Somewhere between 120
and 130 GEV.
502
00:30:29,428 --> 00:30:33,630
114 GEV because it's the most
difficult place to look
503
00:30:33,666 --> 00:30:35,732
and we haven't found it yet.
504
00:30:35,768 --> 00:30:37,334
Ah, that's a good question,
505
00:30:37,369 --> 00:30:39,803
because you know you are
assuming that the Higgs
506
00:30:39,839 --> 00:30:43,373
actually exists, which I'm-I'm
starting to believe
507
00:30:43,409 --> 00:30:45,275
it probably does not exist.
508
00:30:48,514 --> 00:30:51,281
NARRATOR:
As data piled up at the LHC,
509
00:30:51,317 --> 00:30:55,485
scientists narrowed the range
even further.
510
00:30:55,521 --> 00:30:58,522
It seemed that they were either
about to close in
511
00:30:58,557 --> 00:31:05,028
on the Higgs particle or prove
that it didn't exist at all.
512
00:31:05,064 --> 00:31:06,563
People were beginning to worry
a little bit
513
00:31:06,599 --> 00:31:08,031
that we hadn't found
the Higgs yet
514
00:31:08,067 --> 00:31:09,733
and maybe weren't going
to find it.
515
00:31:09,768 --> 00:31:11,702
And that would've been
a complete shock
516
00:31:11,737 --> 00:31:14,938
because we know that something
is doing the job of the Higgs.
517
00:31:14,974 --> 00:31:16,073
You start to get a little
nervous
518
00:31:16,108 --> 00:31:17,541
because either it's there
519
00:31:17,576 --> 00:31:19,309
or there isn't a Higgs boson
at all.
520
00:31:19,345 --> 00:31:24,448
NARRATOR:
By the end of 2011, the window
narrowed even further.
521
00:31:24,483 --> 00:31:28,118
The LHC, with the new data
from the whole of 2011,
522
00:31:28,153 --> 00:31:31,622
is able to expand the area that
it can exclude the Higgs from.
523
00:31:32,892 --> 00:31:37,394
NARRATOR:
The new lower limit had risen
to 115 GEV,
524
00:31:37,429 --> 00:31:42,833
and the new upper limit dropped
to 127 GEV.
525
00:31:42,868 --> 00:31:45,736
And within that range,
526
00:31:45,771 --> 00:31:48,872
interesting things were showing
up in the data.
527
00:31:48,908 --> 00:31:50,774
DAVISON:
So the really exciting thing
528
00:31:50,809 --> 00:31:53,377
was that the reason the LHC
experiments weren't able
529
00:31:53,412 --> 00:31:55,946
to exclude anything inside
this remaining window
530
00:31:55,981 --> 00:31:58,048
is that in fact they see
an excess of events,
531
00:31:58,083 --> 00:32:01,718
the early signs of the
Higgs boson, if it's there.
532
00:32:04,256 --> 00:32:07,557
NARRATOR:
An eess of events means
that the LHC was producing
533
00:32:07,593 --> 00:32:12,863
more particles of interest--
in particular, pairs of photons.
534
00:32:12,898 --> 00:32:14,898
RANDALL:
So, what you're looking for is
called a bump
535
00:32:14,934 --> 00:32:16,967
because at that
particular energy,
536
00:32:17,002 --> 00:32:18,502
you should see a lot
more decays...
537
00:32:20,973 --> 00:32:24,141
if there is a Higgs boson.
538
00:32:24,176 --> 00:32:27,644
So if you see a bump, that's a
clue that something's going on.
539
00:32:27,680 --> 00:32:32,282
NARRATOR:
Those excess photon pairs were
showing up in not just one...
540
00:32:36,221 --> 00:32:41,491
but in both detectors, and at
practically the same mass.
541
00:32:43,862 --> 00:32:46,930
CMS was seeing a spike
in the number of photons
542
00:32:46,966 --> 00:32:52,502
which could be the signal of a
Higgs with a mass of 124 GEV.
543
00:32:54,039 --> 00:32:59,343
And ATLAS was seeing a
similar spike near 125.
544
00:33:03,749 --> 00:33:07,484
Now with the hunt finally
closing in,
545
00:33:07,519 --> 00:33:12,456
the LHC continued smashing
protons,
546
00:33:12,491 --> 00:33:17,327
sorting through the debris
and piling up the data
547
00:33:17,363 --> 00:33:21,098
for another six months.
548
00:33:21,133 --> 00:33:27,938
We saw a signal growing, growing
every week, every day.
549
00:33:32,277 --> 00:33:43,787
NARRATOR:
Until at last, on July 4, 2012,
the heads of ATLAS and CMS,
550
00:33:43,822 --> 00:33:50,193
Fabiola Gianotti and
Joe Incandela, called a meeting.
551
00:33:50,229 --> 00:33:53,764
DIETER HEUER:
Two presentations from the two
experiments, ATLAS and CMS.
552
00:33:53,799 --> 00:33:59,102
NARRATOR:
There to hear the news
firsthand: Peter Higgs himself.
553
00:33:59,138 --> 00:34:02,706
It was standing room only.
554
00:34:02,741 --> 00:34:04,808
HEUER:
Good afternoon,
everybody in Melbourne.
555
00:34:04,843 --> 00:34:09,846
NARRATOR:
But it was also beamed live
around the world.
556
00:34:09,882 --> 00:34:11,114
FRANKLIN:
So, of course,
557
00:34:11,150 --> 00:34:13,350
everyone's heard lots of rumors
at this point,
558
00:34:13,385 --> 00:34:15,185
within the collaborations.
559
00:34:15,220 --> 00:34:16,520
But there are these two
collaborations,
560
00:34:16,555 --> 00:34:18,855
the CMS collaboration and
the ATLAS collaboration.
561
00:34:18,891 --> 00:34:23,026
And we aren't supposed to know
what they have, and I didn't.
562
00:34:23,062 --> 00:34:26,196
You know, you'd heard stories,
but I hadn't seen their data.
563
00:34:26,231 --> 00:34:27,831
So that's kind of exciting.
564
00:34:27,866 --> 00:34:33,036
So, today is a special day on a
search for a certain particle.
565
00:34:33,072 --> 00:34:35,038
NARRATOR:
But no one was quite prepared
566
00:34:35,074 --> 00:34:38,809
for the short, definitive
announcement that was to come.
567
00:34:38,844 --> 00:34:42,412
And I ask Joe Incandela from CMS
to take the floor.
568
00:34:42,448 --> 00:34:45,182
NARRATOR:
This was about to become one of
the defining moments
569
00:34:45,217 --> 00:34:49,586
in the history of physics
and science.
570
00:34:49,621 --> 00:34:52,022
INCANDELA:
And the energy was
so incredible.
571
00:34:52,057 --> 00:34:53,256
It was like a big party.
572
00:34:53,292 --> 00:34:55,025
People were really excited.
573
00:34:55,060 --> 00:34:58,061
And it was just then I think
I started to really appreciate
574
00:34:58,097 --> 00:35:00,430
where we were and that this was
a major discovery.
575
00:35:00,466 --> 00:35:04,000
This slide shows you one event
taken just a few weeks ago.
576
00:35:04,036 --> 00:35:06,536
I put the slide up and before
I could say anything,
577
00:35:06,572 --> 00:35:11,942
there was a gasp
across the whole audience.
578
00:35:11,977 --> 00:35:13,777
Now, a major result like this
579
00:35:13,812 --> 00:35:15,345
from one experiment
could still be wrong.
580
00:35:15,380 --> 00:35:17,414
Now we go immediately
to ATLAS.
581
00:35:17,449 --> 00:35:20,050
Fabiola Gianotti, please.
582
00:35:20,085 --> 00:35:22,085
Thank you.
583
00:35:22,121 --> 00:35:24,621
But Fabiola brought the same
confidence for her results.
584
00:35:24,656 --> 00:35:26,490
You can already see here
the compatibility between
585
00:35:26,525 --> 00:35:33,497
what we observed: one big spike,
here in this region here.
586
00:35:33,532 --> 00:35:35,799
FRANKLIN:
If you look at these plots
that were shown,
587
00:35:35,834 --> 00:35:37,134
first thing you want to see is
588
00:35:37,169 --> 00:35:40,470
did CMS and ATLAS find the bump
in the same place?
589
00:35:40,506 --> 00:35:43,140
NARRATOR:
And in fact they had.
590
00:35:43,175 --> 00:35:47,244
GIANOTTI:
An excess at a mass
of 126.5 GEV.
591
00:35:47,279 --> 00:35:50,347
NARRATOR:
Both teams had found an excess
of photons
592
00:35:50,382 --> 00:35:52,883
pointing to the same mass.
593
00:35:52,918 --> 00:35:54,651
FRANKLIN:
And that was pretty convincing.
594
00:35:54,686 --> 00:35:57,120
So you're going,
"Wow," like, "we rock."
595
00:35:57,156 --> 00:36:02,292
As a layman I would now say
I think we have it.
596
00:36:02,327 --> 00:36:04,294
You agree?
597
00:36:04,329 --> 00:36:07,497
(cheers and applause)
598
00:36:07,533 --> 00:36:11,801
NARRATOR:
The LHC had found
the Higgs particle.
599
00:36:11,837 --> 00:36:15,805
HEUER:
We have observed a new particle
consistent with a Higgs boson.
600
00:36:15,841 --> 00:36:17,307
INCANDELA:
It's like running a marathon.
601
00:36:17,342 --> 00:36:18,642
Suddenly you realize you crossed
the finish line.
602
00:36:25,817 --> 00:36:30,120
Maybe one more round of applause
to all the guys
603
00:36:30,155 --> 00:36:34,958
who took part in the project
for more than 25 years.
604
00:36:34,993 --> 00:36:37,127
LYN EVANS:
It comes as a big surprise
to me, I must say.
605
00:36:37,162 --> 00:36:40,764
I went into that seminar
expecting good results.
606
00:36:41,900 --> 00:36:44,367
But I was gobsmacked,
as they say.
607
00:36:47,105 --> 00:36:51,708
NARRATOR:
The hunt that spanned
half a century was over.
608
00:36:51,743 --> 00:36:53,677
The Higgs boson hid
for 50 years.
609
00:36:53,712 --> 00:36:56,980
But, you know, like they said
with the Canadian Mounties,
610
00:36:57,015 --> 00:36:58,281
"They'll get their man."
611
00:36:58,317 --> 00:37:00,116
It could run,
but it couldn't hide forever.
612
00:37:00,152 --> 00:37:01,518
(applause)
613
00:37:03,789 --> 00:37:07,057
NARRATOR:
It appeared Higgs and his
colleagues had been right.
614
00:37:07,092 --> 00:37:11,595
The mysty of how particles
gain mass had been solved.
615
00:37:11,630 --> 00:37:15,966
The last piece of the Standard
Model had been found.
616
00:37:16,001 --> 00:37:20,870
For me it's really
an incredible thing
617
00:37:20,906 --> 00:37:23,006
that it's happened
in my lifetime.
618
00:37:30,649 --> 00:37:32,816
GIANOTTI:
I had the pleasure
to meet Peter Higgs
619
00:37:32,851 --> 00:37:34,884
at the end of the seminar
and exchange a hug.
620
00:37:34,920 --> 00:37:36,019
He told me,
621
00:37:36,054 --> 00:37:38,521
"Congratulations to you
and your experiment
622
00:37:38,557 --> 00:37:40,824
for this incredible
achievement."
623
00:37:40,859 --> 00:37:43,860
And of course, I replied,
"Congratulations to you!
624
00:37:43,895 --> 00:37:45,729
You are the first person to be
congratulated."
625
00:37:45,764 --> 00:37:48,932
I think it's not appropriate
for me to answer
626
00:37:48,967 --> 00:37:50,867
any detailed questions
at this stage.
627
00:37:50,902 --> 00:37:55,905
This is an occasion celebrating
an experimental achievement
628
00:37:55,941 --> 00:38:00,377
and I simply congratulate
the people involved.
629
00:38:08,487 --> 00:38:12,422
NARRATOR:
Ironically, the achievement took
place at the very same institute
630
00:38:12,457 --> 00:38:15,358
where nearly 50 years earlier,
631
00:38:15,394 --> 00:38:18,328
an editor had rejected Higgs'
initial paper.
632
00:38:20,699 --> 00:38:22,432
MAN:
The Royal Swedish Academy
of Sciences...
633
00:38:22,467 --> 00:38:25,201
NARRATOR:
In a fitting end to the saga,
634
00:38:25,237 --> 00:38:30,240
Peter Higgs and Belgian
physicist François Englert,
635
00:38:30,275 --> 00:38:31,941
who had independently come up
with the idea
636
00:38:31,977 --> 00:38:38,815
for the Higgs field,
won the 2013 Nobel Prize.
637
00:38:42,521 --> 00:38:44,554
Englert's colleague,
Robert Brout,
638
00:38:44,589 --> 00:38:46,823
certainly would have been
honored as well
639
00:38:46,858 --> 00:38:49,759
had he lived to see the day.
640
00:38:53,765 --> 00:38:57,534
So why is all this important?
641
00:38:57,569 --> 00:39:00,870
Why does proving the existence
of the Higgs field matter?
642
00:39:03,842 --> 00:39:06,910
Building an enormous Big Bang
machine to recreate conditions
643
00:39:06,945 --> 00:39:10,013
in the universe near
the beginning of time
644
00:39:10,048 --> 00:39:12,248
and completing
the Standard Model
645
00:39:12,284 --> 00:39:15,618
is a tremendous scientific
achievement.
646
00:39:15,654 --> 00:39:19,789
FRANKLIN:
Finding the Higgs sheds light
on all of particle physics
647
00:39:19,825 --> 00:39:21,791
and cosmology.
648
00:39:21,827 --> 00:39:23,226
It's all connected.
649
00:39:23,261 --> 00:39:28,098
All our models of how the
universe began, how it expanded,
650
00:39:28,133 --> 00:39:32,969
everything, is, you know,
affected by the Higgs field
651
00:39:33,004 --> 00:39:35,839
and by how we understand
the universe.
652
00:39:38,377 --> 00:39:42,612
NARRATOR:
Perhaps discovering the Higgs
boson and the field it proves
653
00:39:42,647 --> 00:39:44,514
will open new doors...
654
00:39:44,549 --> 00:39:48,017
GIANOTTI:
The discovery of the Higgs
is just the first step.
655
00:39:48,053 --> 00:39:50,353
In science you make
a step forward--
656
00:39:50,389 --> 00:39:54,991
you answer a question, but then
other questions open up.
657
00:39:55,026 --> 00:39:58,762
NARRATOR:
...into even greater mysteries
that still remain
658
00:39:58,797 --> 00:40:01,231
beyond the Standard Model.
659
00:40:01,266 --> 00:40:02,699
INCANDELA:
The Standard Model can't be
the final thing.
660
00:40:02,734 --> 00:40:05,535
There is something beyond the
Standard Model; we know that.
661
00:40:05,570 --> 00:40:07,937
Hopefully the Higgs can give us
some guidance in that direction.
662
00:40:09,908 --> 00:40:12,308
Yes, we do know
the Standard Model works.
663
00:40:12,344 --> 00:40:14,043
It works incredibly well.
664
00:40:14,079 --> 00:40:16,413
But we know it's not
the whole story.
665
00:40:16,448 --> 00:40:17,981
And any time in the history
of physics
666
00:40:18,016 --> 00:40:21,584
where people thought they had
the whole story they were wrong.
667
00:40:21,620 --> 00:40:24,821
And so we're looking for what
is the next piece,
668
00:40:24,856 --> 00:40:26,489
not just in terms
of one particle
669
00:40:26,525 --> 00:40:29,859
but in terms of forces, in terms
of understanding nature.
670
00:40:29,895 --> 00:40:32,362
The number of mysteries in
the Standard Model is huge,
671
00:40:32,397 --> 00:40:34,497
which is fine because,
as a scientist,
672
00:40:34,533 --> 00:40:36,533
I'm drawn to mysteries.
673
00:40:40,138 --> 00:40:42,872
NARRATOR:
One mystery that the
Standard Model can't answer
674
00:40:42,908 --> 00:40:45,575
is perhaps the most fundamental
of them all.
675
00:40:47,979 --> 00:40:52,348
Why isn't our universe empty?
676
00:40:57,422 --> 00:40:58,855
Because according
to the mathematics
677
00:40:58,890 --> 00:41:06,162
behind the Standard Model,
it should be.
678
00:41:06,198 --> 00:41:09,332
Science has given us a set of
laws that describe the world
679
00:41:09,367 --> 00:41:12,669
so accurately that we can
predict the motion of a coin
680
00:41:12,704 --> 00:41:16,105
tossed in the air because we
understand the law of gravity.
681
00:41:16,141 --> 00:41:18,942
We understand electromagnetism
so well
682
00:41:18,977 --> 00:41:22,312
that we can use our GPS
satellites to locate your car
683
00:41:22,347 --> 00:41:25,281
to within a few inches.
684
00:41:25,317 --> 00:41:27,484
And we understand
the nuclear force so well
685
00:41:27,519 --> 00:41:31,087
that we can predict the future
evolution of the sun itself.
686
00:41:35,193 --> 00:41:38,761
NARRATOR:
Those mathematical equations
that work so well
687
00:41:38,797 --> 00:41:42,332
to describe the laws
of the physical world
688
00:41:42,367 --> 00:41:46,469
are bound together by something
that we see around us every day.
689
00:41:48,607 --> 00:41:53,710
Something that characterizes
our faces...
690
00:41:53,745 --> 00:41:56,546
and the natural world...
691
00:41:56,581 --> 00:42:03,086
even the tiniest structures
like viruses and our DNA--
692
00:42:03,121 --> 00:42:04,387
symmetry.
693
00:42:04,422 --> 00:42:08,925
WILCZEK:
In the Standard Model,
symmetry rules.
694
00:42:08,960 --> 00:42:14,931
The laws are dictated, really,
in their form
695
00:42:14,966 --> 00:42:17,734
by requiring tremendous amounts
of symmetry.
696
00:42:17,769 --> 00:42:19,168
That's how we found them.
697
00:42:22,173 --> 00:42:26,075
NARRATOR:
The equations of the Standard
Model seem to predict a universe
698
00:42:26,111 --> 00:42:30,580
in perfect balance, formless
and without structure...
699
00:42:30,615 --> 00:42:32,782
(explosion)
700
00:42:32,817 --> 00:42:35,285
as it was at the very beginning.
701
00:42:37,389 --> 00:42:42,191
And if it had remained that way,
nothing would exist.
702
00:42:42,227 --> 00:42:45,595
If the laws of science are
framed in their most perfect,
703
00:42:45,630 --> 00:42:49,866
most symmetrical form,
then life cannot exist at all.
704
00:42:56,841 --> 00:42:59,842
There'd be no mountains, rivers,
valleys,
705
00:42:59,878 --> 00:43:02,645
no DNA, no people, nothing.
706
00:43:16,428 --> 00:43:20,330
NARRATOR:
A universe created along
absolutely symmetric principles
707
00:43:20,365 --> 00:43:22,532
would be in perfect balance.
708
00:43:26,271 --> 00:43:30,640
The Higgs field is the first
clue to what broke the symmetry
709
00:43:30,675 --> 00:43:34,110
of that completely uniform
early universe.
710
00:43:36,281 --> 00:43:38,448
The state of perfect symmetry
is very similar
711
00:43:38,483 --> 00:43:40,516
to the state of perfect balance.
712
00:43:40,552 --> 00:43:42,785
Think of a spinning top.
713
00:43:42,821 --> 00:43:46,589
It exists in a state of
perfect rotational symmetry.
714
00:43:46,625 --> 00:43:50,259
No matter how you rotate,
everything looks the same.
715
00:43:50,295 --> 00:43:53,763
NARRATOR:
Even more so than the symmetry
of a spinning top,
716
00:43:53,798 --> 00:43:56,499
at this instant of creation,
717
00:43:56,534 --> 00:43:59,435
every place in the universe
would have been symmetrical,
718
00:43:59,471 --> 00:44:03,072
identical to every other place.
719
00:44:03,108 --> 00:44:06,109
But perfection isn't stable.
720
00:44:06,144 --> 00:44:10,246
The slightest imperfection,
the slightest little defect
721
00:44:10,281 --> 00:44:13,082
will cause it to vrate,
perturb,
722
00:44:13,118 --> 00:44:15,351
and fall to a lower energy
state.
723
00:44:15,387 --> 00:44:18,221
Symmetry has been broken.
724
00:44:18,256 --> 00:44:21,758
NARRATOR:
Within a fraction of a second
of the Big Bang,
725
00:44:21,793 --> 00:44:25,395
physicists believe the absolute
symmetry of the universe
726
00:44:25,430 --> 00:44:29,332
was shattered
by a tiny fluctuation.
727
00:44:29,367 --> 00:44:33,503
The Higgs field appeared
in all of space.
728
00:44:33,538 --> 00:44:35,672
The forces split apart.
729
00:44:35,707 --> 00:44:38,875
The particles of the Standard
Model became distinct.
730
00:44:38,910 --> 00:44:41,177
Structure emerged.
731
00:44:41,212 --> 00:44:45,548
This fall from perfection
was what allowed us
732
00:44:45,583 --> 00:44:48,551
to come into being.
733
00:44:48,586 --> 00:44:51,554
KAKU:
Everything we see around us
is nothing but fragments
734
00:44:51,589 --> 00:44:53,523
of this original perfection.
735
00:44:53,558 --> 00:44:58,094
Whenever you see a beautiful
snowflake, a beautiful crystal,
736
00:44:58,129 --> 00:45:02,398
or even the symmetry of stars in
the universe, that's a fragment.
737
00:45:02,434 --> 00:45:05,201
That's a piece of
the original symmetry
738
00:45:05,236 --> 00:45:07,003
at the beginning of time.
739
00:45:13,111 --> 00:45:15,912
NARRATOR:
Finding and studying the Higgs
is a vital first step
740
00:45:15,947 --> 00:45:17,947
in the quest to understand
that early state
741
00:45:17,982 --> 00:45:22,251
when the particles that make up
what we can perceive
742
00:45:22,287 --> 00:45:26,422
came into being, as well
as a much greater quantity
743
00:45:26,458 --> 00:45:29,726
of mysterious stuff
that we know is out there
744
00:45:29,761 --> 00:45:34,597
but that we can't directly
detect, called dark matter.
745
00:45:38,103 --> 00:45:40,603
What are these missing pieces?
746
00:45:43,007 --> 00:45:45,541
When James Gates came
to study at MIT,
747
00:45:45,577 --> 00:45:49,479
he was determined to unlock the
secrets of the early universe
748
00:45:49,514 --> 00:45:56,419
and understand what happened to
the unity that was once there.
749
00:45:57,989 --> 00:46:00,690
GATES:
The universe and we are
intricately tied together.
750
00:46:03,595 --> 00:46:05,695
This idea of unity
turns out to be
751
00:46:05,730 --> 00:46:09,766
one of the most powerful
driving themes in physics
752
00:46:09,801 --> 00:46:11,634
and it keeps getting us to look
753
00:46:11,669 --> 00:46:14,137
for deeper and deeper
connections.
754
00:46:14,172 --> 00:46:16,706
So ultimately, perhaps, we exist
755
00:46:16,741 --> 00:46:20,109
because the universe
had no other choice.
756
00:46:22,147 --> 00:46:24,547
NARRATOR:
He looked at the Standard Model,
757
00:46:24,582 --> 00:46:27,817
the matter particles and the
bosons, the force particles,
758
00:46:27,852 --> 00:46:29,585
that hold everything together.
759
00:46:29,621 --> 00:46:33,022
He wondered if these two groups
of particles
760
00:46:33,057 --> 00:46:36,092
that seem so different
could be related
761
00:46:36,127 --> 00:46:39,362
in some profound and hidden way.
762
00:46:39,397 --> 00:46:41,197
This question--
763
00:46:41,232 --> 00:46:44,667
why is there a fundamental
asymmetry of forces and matter--
764
00:46:44,702 --> 00:46:47,303
led him to a powerful
mathematical theory
765
00:46:47,338 --> 00:46:50,039
called supersymmetry.
766
00:46:50,074 --> 00:46:52,942
It was the asking
of this "what if?" question
767
00:46:52,977 --> 00:46:56,479
that drove the construction
of supersymmetry,
768
00:46:56,514 --> 00:46:59,348
which had an incredible
resonance for me
769
00:46:59,384 --> 00:47:01,017
when I was a graduate student.
770
00:47:01,052 --> 00:47:04,153
I saw one more beautiful balance
that we could put in nature.
771
00:47:07,125 --> 00:47:09,826
NARRATOR:
One of the pioneers
of supersymmetry,
772
00:47:09,861 --> 00:47:12,895
Jim Gates saw in the mathematics
a possible hidden world
773
00:47:12,931 --> 00:47:16,532
of new particles
no one had suspected.
774
00:47:19,037 --> 00:47:22,672
GATES:
Mathematics leads us to find
things we didn't know
775
00:47:22,707 --> 00:47:24,106
were there before.
776
00:47:24,142 --> 00:47:26,609
Supersymmetry is an example
of that.
777
00:47:26,644 --> 00:47:28,744
We know about ordinary matter.
778
00:47:28,780 --> 00:47:31,113
The mass leads you on
779
00:47:31,149 --> 00:47:33,349
to discover supermatter
and superenergy.
780
00:47:39,023 --> 00:47:42,525
NARRATOR:
The theory gives every matter
particle a force partner
781
00:47:42,560 --> 00:47:47,730
and every force particle
a matter partner.
782
00:47:49,767 --> 00:47:54,837
These heavier supersymmetric
twins are labeled sparticles.
783
00:47:57,508 --> 00:47:59,742
So once you believe this math
784
00:47:59,777 --> 00:48:02,678
that says there's
more to existence,
785
00:48:02,714 --> 00:48:04,780
then you have to wonder what
these other things are.
786
00:48:04,816 --> 00:48:06,449
You have to name them,
at a very...
787
00:48:06,484 --> 00:48:08,117
you know, at the very
first step.
788
00:48:08,152 --> 00:48:11,087
So in nature there is a thing
called the electron.
789
00:48:11,122 --> 00:48:12,989
The math says it has
a superpartner
790
00:48:13,024 --> 00:48:14,991
called the selectron.
791
00:48:15,026 --> 00:48:17,560
Muon, it'd have to be a smuon;
792
00:48:17,595 --> 00:48:20,596
photon, there'd have to be a
photino;
793
00:48:20,632 --> 00:48:23,466
quark, there'd have to be
squarks;
794
00:48:23,501 --> 00:48:26,702
Z particle, there'd have
to be zino;
795
00:48:26,738 --> 00:48:30,172
the W particle,
there'd have to be a wino.
796
00:48:30,208 --> 00:48:33,109
And that's how supersymmetry
works.
797
00:48:35,179 --> 00:48:37,213
NARRATOR:
According to supersymmetry,
798
00:48:37,248 --> 00:48:40,950
matter and forces aren't
so distinct after all.
799
00:48:40,985 --> 00:48:44,186
There's a grand symmetry
between them
800
00:48:44,222 --> 00:48:48,758
but we can currently see only
e partner from each pair.
801
00:48:52,230 --> 00:48:54,163
However strange it seems,
802
00:48:54,198 --> 00:48:56,766
this theory has gained
widespread support
803
00:48:56,801 --> 00:48:59,702
from theoretical physicists.
804
00:48:59,737 --> 00:49:03,539
(clanging)
805
00:49:03,574 --> 00:49:06,375
Not just for the beauty
of its equations
806
00:49:06,411 --> 00:49:09,412
but for what it might
help explain.
807
00:49:09,447 --> 00:49:13,182
GATES:
When supersymmetry began
as a topic of discussion,
808
00:49:13,217 --> 00:49:16,152
no one realized what it can do.
809
00:49:16,187 --> 00:49:18,521
It turns out that studying
the mathematics,
810
00:49:18,556 --> 00:49:22,525
we get a firm foundation
for the existence of everything.
811
00:49:29,400 --> 00:49:32,868
NARRATOR:
Supersymmetry could shed light
on dark matter--
812
00:49:32,904 --> 00:49:35,104
the missing particles
that aren't included
813
00:49:35,139 --> 00:49:38,607
in the Standard Model--
and even help to explain
814
00:49:38,643 --> 00:49:42,044
how symmetry was broken
in the first place.
815
00:49:44,182 --> 00:49:46,682
WILCZEK:
I very much want supersymmetry
816
00:49:46,718 --> 00:49:49,452
because it's a beautiful thing
by any standard
817
00:49:49,487 --> 00:49:53,622
and would take our understanding
of nature to a new level.
818
00:49:53,658 --> 00:49:55,291
So I want that.
819
00:50:04,535 --> 00:50:07,903
NARRATOR:
Finding the Higgs pushed
the LHC to the limit
820
00:50:07,939 --> 00:50:11,507
of what it could do.
821
00:50:11,542 --> 00:50:13,676
So, a few months after
the Higgs announcement...
822
00:50:16,814 --> 00:50:19,615
the scientists at CERN shut down
the giant collider...
823
00:50:24,422 --> 00:50:26,989
and began a planned
two-year upgrade.
824
00:50:33,197 --> 00:50:35,731
As it begins its second act,
825
00:50:35,767 --> 00:50:40,002
it will smash protons
even more energetically.
826
00:50:40,038 --> 00:50:42,772
FRANKLIN:
So when the LHC turns back on
in 2015,
827
00:50:42,807 --> 00:50:44,874
we will be at twice the energy
we were before.
828
00:50:47,311 --> 00:50:51,113
NARRATOR:
The increased power will help
physicists to study the Higgs
829
00:50:51,149 --> 00:50:56,352
with more precision, but the
real hope is that they will find
830
00:50:56,387 --> 00:50:59,188
something entirely new.
831
00:50:59,223 --> 00:51:01,624
Every single experimentalist
is only thinking this:
832
00:51:01,659 --> 00:51:05,127
Is there a massive particle we
can now make with this energy,
833
00:51:05,163 --> 00:51:08,097
with these energetic protons,
that we haven't seen before?
834
00:51:11,135 --> 00:51:13,035
NARRATOR:
For the theorists, too,
835
00:51:13,071 --> 00:51:18,307
it is an exciting and
nerve-wracking time.
836
00:51:18,342 --> 00:51:22,545
If we find supersymmetry in
experiments, for me personally
837
00:51:22,580 --> 00:51:26,982
it will mean that I have not
wasted my entire research career
838
00:51:27,018 --> 00:51:30,820
because this is the one question
as a young scientist
839
00:51:30,855 --> 00:51:34,423
I decided had my name on it
to study.
840
00:51:38,563 --> 00:51:39,895
I'm starting to get nervous.
841
00:51:39,931 --> 00:51:43,699
(laughs)
842
00:51:43,734 --> 00:51:46,735
You know...
843
00:51:46,771 --> 00:51:48,938
So there were a lot of people
who predicted
844
00:51:48,973 --> 00:51:53,175
that supersymmetry was just
around the corner
845
00:51:53,211 --> 00:51:55,578
or something else, that as soon
as LHC turned on
846
00:51:55,613 --> 00:51:57,847
they'd see spectacular effects
on the one hand,
847
00:51:57,882 --> 00:52:00,349
or that the Higgs particle would
be heavy on the other hand.
848
00:52:00,384 --> 00:52:01,584
Those are all wrong.
849
00:52:01,619 --> 00:52:03,819
Now it's make or break time.
850
00:52:09,560 --> 00:52:12,695
NARRATOR:
For the thousands of scientists
who have come together
851
00:52:12,730 --> 00:52:14,063
in this great quest,
852
00:52:14,098 --> 00:52:17,666
pushing the frontiers
of knowledge
853
00:52:17,702 --> 00:52:19,502
has been a wild
rollercoaster ride.
854
00:52:23,574 --> 00:52:25,307
And with the Large Hadron
Collider...
855
00:52:25,343 --> 00:52:28,711
MULTIPLE VOICES:
Three, two, one...
856
00:52:28,746 --> 00:52:29,678
zero.
857
00:52:29,714 --> 00:52:33,015
NARRATOR:
The fun has only just begun.
858
00:52:42,293 --> 00:52:44,226
The exploration continues
online,
859
00:52:44,262 --> 00:52:46,996
where you can watch this
and ot NOVA programs.
860
00:52:47,031 --> 00:52:49,298
Journey beneath the Alps
861
00:52:49,333 --> 00:52:52,701
to explore the world's largest
particle accelerator.
862
00:52:52,737 --> 00:52:56,472
Also, what are gravitons,
what is dark energy
863
00:52:56,507 --> 00:52:59,675
and what is the smallest
particle?
864
00:52:59,710 --> 00:53:03,245
Watch original video shorts,
explore in-depth reporting
865
00:53:03,281 --> 00:53:05,214
and dive into interactives.
866
00:53:05,249 --> 00:53:08,017
Find us at pbs.org/nova.
867
00:53:08,052 --> 00:53:10,152
Follow us on Facebook
and Twitter.
868
00:53:28,573 --> 00:53:31,307
This NOVA program
is available on DVD.
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869
00:53:31,342 --> 00:53:37,179
To order, visit shopPBS.org,
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870
00:53:37,215 --> 00:53:37,179
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